The Diet of Worms of May 1521 condemned Luther and officially banned citizens of the Holy Roman Empire from defending or propagating his ideas. The former settled in the Vistula Delta where they used their agricultural abilities to turn parts of the delta into plodders. The Augustinianism of the Reformers struggled against Pelagianism, a heresy that they perceived in the Catholic Church of their day. [45] Church authorities acknowledged that an individual might receive direct revelations from God under exceptional circumstances but maintained that a genuine revelation could not challenge traditional religious principles. The Calvinist and Lutheran doctrine of the. Among the prominent scholastics, Thomas Aquinas (d. 1274) argued that reason could never be at variance with faith, and William of Ockham (d. 1349) concluded that human logic could not prove the existence of God. Calvinism developed through the Puritan period, following the restoration of the monarchy under Charles II, and within Wales' Calvinistic Methodist movement. [203][204][note 23] Protestants have developed their own culture, with major contributions in education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy and the arts and many other fields. In the early 16th century, Spain had a different political and cultural milieu from its Western and Central European neighbours in several respects, which affected the mentality and the reaction of the nation towards the Reformation. The Reformation impacted the Western legal tradition. [39], Latin was the language of public worship in most dioceses of Catholic Europe[note 4] although few laymen could understand it. [60] The rise of the Ottoman Empire led to the mass immigration of Byzantine scholars to Western Europe, and many of them brought Greek manuscripts containing ancient works previously unknown to western scholarship. Following the Affair of the Placards, culprits were rounded up, at least a dozen heretics were put to death, and the persecution of Protestants increased. As Queen of Navarre, Jeanne III commissioned the translation of the New Testament into Basque[note 22] and Barnese for the benefit of her subjects. [161] Luther became so angry that he famously carved into the meeting table in chalk Hoc Est Corpus Meuma Biblical quotation from the Last Supper meaning "This is my body". Henry strongly wanted a male heir, and many of his subjects might have agreed, if only because they wanted to avoid another dynastic conflict like the Wars of the Roses. The Reformation in Scotland's case culminated ecclesiastically in the establishment of a church along reformed lines, and politically in the triumph of English influence over that of France. Under the reign of Frederick I (152333), Denmark remained officially Catholic. Austria followed the same pattern as the German-speaking states within the Holy Roman Empire, and Lutheranism became the main Protestant confession among its population. Prior to Martin Luther and the other Protestant Reformers, there were earlier reform movements within Western Christianity. [176] Nevertheless, it was not until the mid-19th century that celebrating Christmas became fashionable in the Boston region. The Protestant Reformation was the 16th-century religious, political, intellectual and cultural upheaval that splintered Catholic Europe, setting in place the structures and beliefs that would. However, Elizabeth I stayed the course and was able to appease the general population, bringing an end to the English Reformation, but not religious conflict in England. As a result, the Reformation exerted almost no lasting influence in Italy, except for strengthening the Catholic Church and pushing for an end to ongoing abuses during the Counter-Reformation.[190][191]. The Humanist scholars Nicholas of Cusa (d. 1464), Lorenzo Valla (d. 1457), and Reginald Pecock (d. c. 1461) proved that one of the basic documents of papal authority, the allegedly 4th-century Donation of Constantine was actually a medieval forgery; Juan Luis Vives (d. 1540) did not hide his contempt of the popular hagiographic collection known as the Golden Legend, describing it as a book "written by men with mouths of iron and hearts of lead". [97] Here he explained his "theology of the Cross" about a loving God who had become frail and foolish to save fallen humanity, contrasting it with the scholastic "theology of glory" that celebrated erudition and human acts. The war is most easily understood by dividing it into four phases: Bohemian Revolt (1618-1620) Denmark's Engagement (1625-1629) Sweden's Engagement (1630-1634) France's Engagement (1635-1648) [46], After Arianisma Christological doctrine condemned as heresy at 4th-century general councilsdisappeared in the late 7th century, no major disputes menaced the theological unity of the Western Church. The separation of the Church of England from Rome under Henry VIII, beginning in 1529 and completed in 1537, brought England alongside this broad Reformation movement. [50][51][52], Wycliffe's theology, particularly his teaching about sinful priests had a marked impact on the Prague academic Jan Hus (d. 1415). Date Event . Using the German vernacular they expressed the Apostles' Creed in simpler, more personal, Trinitarian language. In his Latin treatise On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church, he concluded that only baptism and the Eucharist could be regarded as sacraments because other Catholic sacred rites had no biblical foundations. These were monastic communities that returned to the strict interpretation of their order's monastic rule. A significant Protestant minority remained, most of it adhering to the Calvinist faith. Many Renaissance . Songs such as the Lutheran hymns or the Calvinist Psalter became tools for the spread of Protestant ideas and beliefs, as well as identity flags. These agreements limited papal authority over the national Churches in favor for the local rulers. [citation needed]. Kooi, Christine. Luther was taken to Frederick's castle of Wartburg. Ultimately Pope Clement VII refused the petition; consequently it became necessary for the King to assert his lordship over the church in his realm to give legal effect to his wishes. The term Protestant, though initially purely political in nature, later acquired a broader sense, referring to a member of any Western church which subscribed to the main Protestant principles. The papal nuncio Girolamo Aleandro (d. 1542) ordered the burning of Luther's books at Louvain and Lige. Zwingli, inspired by Dutch theologian Cornelius Hoen, believed that the Communion bread was only representative and memorialChrist was not present. He described it as "a quarrel among friars" in reference to the well-known feud between the Augustinians and Dominicans. What was the purpose of the Reformation? Here he was warned to recant but refused stating that only arguments from the Bible could convince him that his works contained errors. The Reformation was thus a media revolution. [200] The Catholic House of Habsburg and its allies fought against the Protestant princes of Germany, supported at various times by Denmark, Sweden and France. The Thirty Years' War began in 1618 and brought a drastic territorial and demographic decline when the House of Habsburg introduced counter-reformational measures throughout their vast possessions in Central Europe. Reformation, also called Protestant Reformation, the religious revolution that took place in the Western church in the 16th century. For example, author Hans Hillerbrand estimated a total Protestant population of 833,457,000 in 2004. The papal bull of Luther's excommunication called Decet Romanum Pontificem was published on 3 January 1521. In 1517, Luther nailed the Ninety-five theses to the Castle Church door, and without his knowledge or prior approval, they were copied and printed across Germany and internationally. Upon his return to the country Kihn John Casimir crowned Mary a Queen of Poland. [202] Today, Protestantism constitutes the second-largest form of Christianity (after Catholicism), with a total of 800million to 1billion adherents worldwide or about 37% of all Christians. One of his slogans famously claimed that "As soon as the coin into the box rings, a soul from purgatory to heaven springs". Yet, at a popular level, religion in England was still in a state of flux. [20], The papacy was "Europe's first major international power" (Chris Wickham) although its authority was based on a well organised system of communication and bureaucracy rather than armed forces. [206] The following outcomes of the Reformation regarding human capital formation, the Protestant ethic, economic development, governance, and "dark" outcomes have been identified by scholars:[126], The absence of Protestants, however, does not necessarily imply a failure of the Reformation.[where?] [178] The Welsh Protestants used the model of the Synod of Dort of 16181619. The reformation wave swept first the Holy Roman Empire, and then extended beyond it to the rest of the European continent. Bagchi, David, and David C. Steinmetz, eds. They administered most sacraments to the local community of the faithful. Through German trade connections, many young Icelanders studied in Hamburg. [103] His theology quickly developed in the subsequent period. More radical Hussites set up their own Church known as the Union of Bohemian Brethren under the spiritual guidance of the writer Petr Chelick (d. c. 1460). [159][160] Ducal Prussia was followed by many imperial free cities and other minor imperial entities. [5] It was only in the late 15th century that a slow demographic recovery began. To understand the Protestant Reform movement, we need to go back in history to the early 16th century when there was only one church in Western Europe - what we would now call the Roman Catholic Church - under the leadership of the Pope in Rome. [22] The popes could grant dispensations to institutions or individuals, exempting them from certain provisions of canon law. Although Sigismund of Luxemburg had granted him safe conduct, Hus was sentenced to death for heresy and burned at the stake on 6 July 1415. A polyglott version of the complete Bible was published under the auspices of Cardinal Jimnez in Spain in 1517. The pope was elected by high-ranking clergymen, the cardinals, and assisted by the professional staff of the Roman Curia. This created resentment amongst the Protestant nobility; however, the country did not experience a religiously motivated civil war. Cities that had higher numbers of students enrolled in heterodox universities and lower numbers enrolled in orthodox universities were more likely to adopt Protestantism. The Presbyterians eventually won control of the Church of Scotland, which went on to have an important influence on Presbyterian churches worldwide, but Scotland retained a relatively large Episcopalian minority.[180]. The process witnessed the break away from the Catholic Church headed by the Pope in Rome.The Protestant Church of England was thus established and the English monarch became its supreme head. [7] These indicated a widespread belief in an intermediate place between Hell and Heaven known as the Purgatory because prayers for those who had been damned to Hell or gone to Heaven would have been useless. Which was a major result of the Reformation? Luther publicly disagrees with other religious reformers on issues of theology. For unknown reasons, laymen only received the sacramental bread during the ceremony from the 13th century. These courts came to known as "La Chambre Ardente" ("the fiery chamber") because of their reputation of meting out death penalties on burning gallows.[184]. The western text of the Creed contained an addition that the Eastern Christians had not agreed to which contributed to the rift between Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy. The English Parliament confirmed the King's supremacy over the Church in the Kingdom of England. Around 1500, the population of Europe was about 6085 million peopleno more than 75 percent of the mid-14th-century demographic maximum. [177], Bishop Richard Davies and dissident Protestant cleric John Penry introduced Calvinist theology to Wales. [5] The Renaissance and Religion The Renaissance is often seen as a secular and even pagan movement that was anti-Christian in many ways. A popular preacher at the Bethlehem Chapel, he was preaching against the wealth and temporal power of the clergy. [83][95], As the historian Lyndal Roper notes, the "Reformation proceeded by a set of debates and arguments". Tetzel, and the theologians Konrad Wimpina (d. 1531) and Johann Eck (d. 1543) were the first to criticise Luther in public, associating some of his theses with Hussitism. Andrew P. Klager, "Ingestion and Gestation: Peacemaking, the Lord's Supper, and the Theotokos in the Mennonite-Anabaptist and Eastern Orthodox Traditions", Birgit Stolt, "Luther's Translation of the Bible. [note 14][82][83] The campaign's vulgarity shocked most serious-minded believers. Between 1530 and 1540, Protestantism in Spain was still able to gain followers clandestinely, and in cities such as Seville and Valladolid adherents would secretly meet at private houses to pray and study the Bible. [citation needed], Word of the Protestant reformers reached Italy in the 1520s but never caught on. This changed in 1534 with the Affair of the Placards. What date was the Reformation in England? [166] In 1538, when the kingly decree of the new Church ordinance reached Iceland, bishop gmundur and his clergy denounced it, threatening excommunication for anyone subscribing to the German "heresy". [4] The end of the Reformation era is disputed among modern scholars. In the late 17th century, 150,000200,000 Huguenots fled to England, the Netherlands, Prussia, Switzerland, and the English and Dutch overseas colonies. Similar attitudes developed among Catholics, who in turn encouraged the creation and use of music for religious purposes.[240]. In fact, prominent scholastic theologians had been convinced that the Bible summarized all knowledge necessary for salvation already before the late medieval dissident movements began. The first books in Slovene, Catechismus and Abecedarium, were written by Trubar.[195]. The Duchy of Prussia, a vassal of the Polish Crown ruled by the Teutonic Knights, emerged as a key center of the movement, with numerous publishing houses issuing not only Bibles, but also catechisms, in German, Polish and Lithuanian. Later, in a movement known as the Counter-Reformation, the Catholic church censored artists and writers in response to the Protestant Reformation. Germany was home to the greatest number of Protestant reformers. Henry had once been a sincere Catholic and had even authored a book strongly criticising Luther. Greater political autonomy increased the likelihood that Protestantism would be adopted. Through their education, many nobles became appreciative of Catholicism or out-right converted. Although he followed the strictest interpretation of the Augustinians' rules, his anxiety about his sinfulness did not abate. The unique government (Poland was a republic where the citizen nobility owned the state) meant the king could not enforce a religious settlement even if he so desired. [44] [44], The sources of religious authority included the Bible and its authoritative commentaries, apostolic tradition, decisions by ecumenical councils, scholastic theology, and papal authority. Regions that were poor but had great economic potential and bad political institutions were more likely to adopt Protestantism. In the meantime the Reformation had taken hold in England. [188] Protestants in Spain were estimated at between 1000 and 3000, mainly among intellectuals who had seen writings such as those of Erasmus. Other consequences included the dissolution of the monasteries, the . [16] Women could not be ordained priests but under exceptional circumstances they could administer baptism or hear confessions. Soon, others joined the call for church reform. In 1588, the Bishop of Llandaff published the entire Bible in the Welsh language. In this act, Protestants denounced the Catholic Mass in placards that appeared across France, even reaching the royal apartments. [163] Frederick's son, Christian, was openly Lutheran, which prevented his election to the throne upon his father's death. Martin. [75] The system of papal dispensations became a principal obstacle to the implementation of reformist measures as the Holy See regularly granted immunities to those who did not want to execute them. The Protestant Reformation: The Protestant Reformation was one of the most important movements in European history. During the Reformation era Protestantism was unsuccessful in Portugal, as its spread was frustrated for similar reasons to those in Spain. In particular, the Thirty Years' War (16181648) devastated much of Germany, killing between 25% and 40% of its entire population. This view was certainly true in Italy, the birthplace of the Renaissance. The wars only concluded when Henry IV, himself a former Huguenot, issued the Edict of Nantes (1598), promising official toleration of the Protestant minority, but under highly restricted conditions. They fled first to Holland, and then later to America to establish the English colony of Massachusetts in New England, which later became one of the original United States. These missionaries dispersed Calvinism widely, and formed the French Huguenots in Calvin's own lifetime and spread to Scotland under the leadership of John Knox in 1560. Its origins lay in the discontent with the Elizabethan Religious Settlement. In 1666, the Sejm banned apostasy from Catholicism to any other religion, under penalty of death. [122], Statistical analysis indicates a significant positive correlation between the presence of a printing press in a city and the adoption of Reformation. The early Reformation in Germany mostly concerns the life of Martin Luther until he was excommunicated by Pope Leo X on 3 January 1521, in the bull Decet Romanum Pontificem. Luther compared the physical presence of the Body and Blood of Christ in the Eucharist to the heating of a piece of iron that changes its physical features. This inevitably led to non-residence, as the same cleric could rarely meet his obligations in multiple offices. "Toleration, Pluralism, and Coexistence: The Ambivalent Legacies of the Reformation. [62] The systematic study of the Bible revealed that Jerome sometimes misinterpreted his sources of translation. [114] While printing presses were concentrated in a few urban centers in most European countries, in Germany they were scattered which prevented their control by central authorities. Cajetan, Eck and other papal officials drafted a papal bull that condemned Luther and his 41 theses. Until the 1960s, historians focused their attention largely on the great leaders and theologians of the 16th century, especially Luther, Calvin, and Zwingli. On 31 October 1517, Luther addressed a letter to Albert of Brandenburg, stating that the clerics preaching the St. Peter's indulgences were deceiving the faithful. The quality of the new Catholic schools was so great that Protestants willingly sent their children to these schools. The Germans fished near Iceland's coast, and the Hanseatic League engaged in commerce with the Icelanders. He dramatised Luther's views on the relationship between the Old and New Testaments, while remaining mindful of Luther's careful distinctions about proper and improper uses of visual imagery.[156].
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