O A. Written informed consent to participate in this study was provided by the participants' legal guardian/next of kin. Birth order effects on early language development: do secondborn children learn from overheard speech? Child Dev. Cumulative risks [b (SE) = 0.04 (0.06), 95% CI = (0.08, 0.15), p = 0.552; see Model 5c, Table 3] did not significantly moderated this indirect effect. (2021). Infant Child Dev. 35, 234248. Later-born children also exhibit worse health behaviors. These findings suggested that birth order might affect child development in ways beyond home learning activities. Question: Determine whether the data described below are qualitative or quantitative and explain why. The relations between home learning environment and child developmental outcomes are likely bidirectional, such that children with more advanced cognitive and school readiness skills might actively engage in more learning activities with their family members (Tamis-LeMonda et al., 2019). School readiness skills at age four predict academic achievement through 5th grade. Bronfenbrenner, U., and Morris, P. A. A family received 1 if the sum score of these 4 items was 8 or below (i.e., relatively low English proficiency) and received 0 if the sum was 9 or above. Table 3. Perspect. How co2 is dissolve in cold drink and why? We used Chi-square tests to examine whether the conditional effects of birth order significantly differed between low-risk and high-risk families. In the economics literature, personality traits are often referred to as non-cognitive abilities and denote traits that can be distinguished from intelligence.6 To measure "personality" (or non-cognitive skills), we use the outcome of a standardized psychological evaluation, conducted by a certified psychologist, that is performed on all Swedish men between the ages of 18 and 20 when they enlist in the military, and which is strongly related to success in the labor market. Particularly, when older siblings elicit unique learning experiences that are not typically offered by parents, later-born children may show an advantage in the specific developmental domain. One order fits all? Black served as a member of President Obama's Council of Economic Advisers, August 2015January 2017. Number of students in a class. The variable is continuous because it is not countable The volume of cola in a can is 10.6 oz. J. Afr. This assertion has been repeatedly challenged. In recent work on the topic, Erik Gronqvist, Bjorn Ockert, and I use Swedish administrative datasets to examine this issue.5. Quantitative variables have numeric meaning, so statistics like means and standard deviations make sense. Furthermore, family dynamics are subject to contextual influences (Bronfenbrenner and Morris, 2006), calling for a consideration of the diverse family contexts when examining the birth order effect. A reciprocal and dynamic development model for the effects of siblings on children's theory of mind. Consistent with the social learning theories (Bandura, 1977), our findings further highlighted the contributions of older siblings to their younger siblings' early cognitive and language development in language minority families (Hurtado-Ortiz and Gauvain, 2007; Obied, 2009; Kibler et al., 2016). Quantitative vs. Qualitative Data January 18, 2015 Kenan Deen As a data science learner, it would be helpful if you are familiar with the concept of Data Types in computer science. This includes rankings (e.g. The bioecological model of human development, in Handbook of Child Psychology, Vol. OB. What was the date of sameul de champlians marriage? Together, these findings highlight the context-specificity of the effect of birth order and reveal the complex interactions among a family's sibling structure, resource distributions, and ecological context. Finally, in low-risk or English-speaking families, birth order had a direct effect favoring firstborns on child outcomes, above and beyond children's engagement in home learning activities. Journal List. However, results of the current study showed that although there was a firstborn advantage in low-risk or English-speaking families, in high-risk or language minority families, later-born children showed equivalent or even better skills than firstborn children. 41, 17991818. Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B): Psychometric Report for the 2-Year Data Collection. The home literacy environment and Latino Head Start children's emergent literacy skills. Rev. However, some researchers have argued that the firstborn advantage in vocabulary was observed in maternal report but not in child speech or standardized tests (Bornstein et al., 2004). Alternatively, there is evidence that parents tend to have lower academic expectations for their later-born children (Kim, 2020) and use less strict disciplinary strategies with their later-born children (Hotz and Pantano, 2015), both of which may have been related to lower developmental outcomes of the later-born children. Sibling relations in early and middle childhood, in The Wiley Blackwell Handbook of Childhood Social Development, eds P. K. Smith and C. H. Hart (Oxford: Wiley Blackwell), 356372. For example, based on evolutionary psychology, Frank J. Sulloway suggests that firstborns have an advantage in following the status quo, while later-borns by having incentives to engage in investments aimed at differentiating themselves become more sociable and unconventional in order to attract parental resources.12. Consistent with previous studies that showed a smaller or non-significant firstborn advantage in language and school outcomes for children from lower-SES families (Zambrana et al., 2012; Cheng et al., 2013; Kim et al., 2018), these findings offered new evidence to the limited work on the birth order effect in families experiencing multiple risk factors, and challenged the universality of the classic birth order theories (Blake, 1981; Zajonc, 1983). Simple, right? Since this post focuses purely on quantitative data, you can put qualitative data out of your mind for now. In the ECLS-B dataset, scale scores were calculated using the Item Response Theory (IRT) methods. 29, 181191. Quantitative data can be further divided into two other types of data: discrete and continuous variables. J. Psychol. It remains unclear whether the birth order effect on early cognitive and school readiness skills varies across diverse contexts, and even less is known about which contextual factors moderate the effect of birth order and how. Older siblings' school experiences might help these parents recognize the importance of early literacy development (Sawyer et al., 2018) and motivate parents to facilitate more learning activities early on. When collecting and analyzing data, quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings. Here, I describe my research with a number of coauthors, using these data to explore the effects of birth order on outcomes including human capital accumulation, earnings, development of cognitive and non-cognitive skills, and health. published a paper in American Psychologist entitled "Resolving the Debate Over Birth Order, Family Size, and Intelligence" that referred to the apparent relationship between birth order and IQ as a "methodological illusion. Ling. For context, 47 percent of the population is overweight and 10 percent is obese. However, the direct effect favored later-borns or was non-significant in high-risk or language minority families. Lomonosov Moscow State University, Russia. For example, siblings with small or large age gaps may interact with and learn from each other in different ways. In short: quantitative means you can count it and it's numerical (think quantity - something you can count). doi: 10.1002/per.2285, Bridges, K., and Hoff, E. (2014). Moreover, we only examined children's engagement in book-reading, storytelling, and singing activities. Strategic parenting, birth order, and school performance. At preschool, birth order had a significant, unconditional direct effect on literacy skills [b (SE) = 1.07 (0.35), 95% CI = (1.76, 0.38), p = 0.002], but a non-significant effect on math skills [b (SE) = 0.47 (0.32), 95% CI = (1.10, 0.17), p = 0.148; see Table 2]. Quantitative research Quantitative research is expressed in numbers and graphs. Qualitative Information - Involves a descriptive judgment using concept words instead of numbers. In these families, where there is likely a disconnection between the home and school environments, the presence of older siblings may enhance, rather than undermine, children' home learning experiences (Hurtado-Ortiz and Gauvain, 2007; Obied, 2009). J Epidemiol Community Health. (2) Mothers' English proficiency, measured at baseline (i.e., 9-month wave) by 4 self-reported items about how well the mother was able to understand, speak, read, and write in English (1-not well at all, 4-very well). 19, 459495. What is the word that goes with a public officer of a town or township responsible for keeping the peace? As shown in Table 2, children's engagement in home learning activities mediated the effect of birth order on children's cognitive skills at 24 months in the whole sample [Unconditional indirect effect: b (SE) = 0.32 (0.07), 95% CI = (0.46, 0.18), p < 0.001]. A sum score was calculated to indicate the total number of risk factors the family experienced, with higher scores indicating greater levels of cumulative risks. Notably, the association between birth order and children's engagement in home learning activities at 24 months was moderated by both cumulative risks [b (SE) = 0.17 (0.06), 95% CI = (0.05, 0.28), p = 0.005; see Model 5a, Table 3] and language minority index [b (SE) = 0.20 (0.06), 95% CI = (0.08, 0.33), p = 0.001; see Model 6a, Table 3]. At the 24-month and preschool waves, children's home learning environment was measured by children's engagement in learning activities. Early Childhood Literacy 1, 301322. The data analyzed in this study was obtained from the Early Childhood Longitudinal StudyBirth Cohort study. Date of birth is Qualitative, but age is Quantitative. doi: 10.1097/DBP.0b013e31823d4f83. Sci. Acta Paediatrica 110, 32943301. Using data from the American Time Use Survey, I find that a first-born child receives 20-30 more minutes of quality time each day with his or her parent than a second-born child of the same age from a similar family. To examine Research Question 1a, a set of multiple regression models were conducted to test the associations between birth order and children's cognitive and school readiness outcomes. Bilingual development in children of immigrant families. 39, 894902. Birth order is often believed to have a profound and lasting effect on psychological development. (2008). Appl. Psychol. Quantitative data is suitable for statistical analysis and mathematical calculations, while qualitative data is usually analyzed by grouping it into meaningful categories or themes. Most children (73.7%) had normal birth weight, and 15.5 and 10.9% of them had moderately low or very low birth weight. Findings of this study reveal the complex associations among sibship structure, home learning environment, and early childhood development. Childhood inputs, especially in the first years of life, are considered crucial for skill formation.9 Firstborn children have the full attention of parents, but as families grow the family environment is diluted and parental resources become scarcer.10 In contrast, parents are more experienced and tend to have higher incomes when raising later-born children. doi: 10.1111/apa.16094, Hoff, E. (2006). Updated August 8, 2022 Qualitative and quantitative research are two methods of data analysis that can help you structure your results. Arithmetic operations such as addition and subtraction can be performed on the values of a quantitative variable and will provide meaningful results. However, women are more likely to quit smoking during their first pregnancy than during later ones, and firstborns are more likely to be breastfed. 57, 110120. doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.36.6.793, Cheng, C. C., Wang, W. L., Sung, Y. T., Wang, Y. C., Su, S. Y., and Li, C. Y. An individual is given a higher score if he is considered to be emotionally stable, persistent, socially outgoing, willing to assume responsibility, and able to take initiative. 77, 924953. Mothers were interviewed about how often they or other family members engaged in book-reading, storytelling, and singing with the target child in a typical week (1-not at all, 2-once or twice, 3-three to six times, 4-every day). 82, 10581075. Researchers have argued that some mathematical skills are more likely to be learned at school rather than at home, which might make math skills less susceptible to the influences of birth order (Lehmann et al., 2018). ECLS-B oversampled children from certain racial/ethnic backgrounds (e.g., Asian and Pacific-Islander, Indian and Alaska Native), twins, and children with low or very low birth weight. Specifically, we asked two sets of research questions. Quantitative Information - Involves a measurable quantitynumbers are used. Keywords: birth order, cognitive skills, school readiness, cumulative risks, language minority, diverse context, Citation: Luo R, Song L and Chiu I-M (2022) A Closer Look at the Birth Order Effect on Early Cognitive and School Readiness Development in Diverse Contexts. Black's research focuses on the effects of early life experiences on the long-run outcomes of children, and on issues of gender and discrimination. These positive impacts of older siblings in high-risk or language minority families might be especially strong during toddlerhood when children spend most of their time at home. Beyond their direct effects on child development, these contextual factors may moderate the effect of birth order on children's home learning environment. Importantly, we also demonstrate that these personality differences translate into differences in occupation choice by birth order. *Correspondence: Rufan Luo, rufan.luo@rutgers.edu, https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.871837, https://nces.ed.gov/ecls/birthdatainformation.asp, Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). Figure 1. It's important to learn the differences between them so you can decide which approach best fits your type of work. doi: 10.3368/jhr.53.1.0816-8177, Luo, R., and Tamis-LeMonda, C. S. (2019). Table 1 presented demographic information on the families' socioeconomic and linguistic backgrounds. Preschool book-sharing and oral storytelling experiences in ethnically diverse, low-income families. It is qualitative, as it describes an attribute or quality of the subject, namely the birth month. The second moderator, language minority index, was tested in separate models. Moreover, older siblings in these families might step into their parents' shoes and engage their younger siblings in learning activities, which compensates the lack of parental support (Gregory, 2001; Zentella, 2005; Kibler et al., 2016; Luo and Tamis-LeMonda, 2019). Math Statistics and Probability Statistics and Probability questions and answers Classify the following data. Dev. (1) Home primary language. Indicate whether the data is qualitative or quantitative, indicate whether the data is discrete, continuous, or nieither, and indicate the level of measurement for the data. However, the direction and magnitude of the indirect effects varied by cumulative risks and language minority index. When we examine this subsample, we find that the birth order effect on occupational choice is entirely driven by the environmental birth order, again suggesting that biological factors may not be central. The literacy assessment consisted of 37 items assessing children's phonological awareness, letter sound knowledge, letter recognition, print conventions, and word recognition skills (Snow et al., 2007). Marriage Family 79, 462474. 25, 198220. Prior to these assessments, children's understanding of English was examined via an English fluency screening test and the parent interview. 11, 2667. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.554023. Finally, how do these differences translate into later health? Psychol. We found that firstborns had higher educational attainment than second-borns who in turn did better than third-borns, and so on. The theory claims that the order in which a child is born shapes their development and personality. Sociol. Some examples are length, mass, temperature, and time. doi: 10.1037/a0028766, Gregory, E. (2001). Large Scandinavian register datasets that became available to researchers beginning in the late 1990s have enabled birth order research, as they contain population data on both family structure and a variety of child outcomes. Eur. National Center for Education Statistics. The role of parent education and parenting knowledge in children's language and literacy skills among White, Black, and Latino families. Lehmann et al. Home kits are qualitative and a clinic blood test or beta hCG tests in . (discrete or continuous data?) In subsequent work, Devereux, Salvanes, and I examined the effect of birth order on IQ scores.3. Moreover, for all examples, the number of possibilities is finite. Psychol. Module 3 Chapter 4: Overview of Quantitative Study Variables The first thing we need to understand is the nature of variables and how variables are used in a study's design to answer the study questions. In May 2023, Frontiers adopted a new reporting platform to be Counter 5 compliant, in line with industry standards. doi: 10.1007/s00148-015-0542-3, Hou, X. H., Gong, Z. Q., Wang, L. J., Zhou, Y., and Su, Y. (2020). Across the entire sample, we expected being later-born to be negatively related to children's engagement in home learning activities, which in turn is positively related to child outcomes. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. How do siblings shape the language environment in bilingual families? A study of low-income, ethnic minority families suggested that children with parents who had lower education levels engaged in language and literacy activities more frequently with other family members such as older siblings, than those children with parents who had higher education levels (Tamis-LeMonda et al., 2019). Ratio Classify the following data. 36, 462474. The effect of birth order showed strong context-specificity. Birth order refers to the order a child is born in their family; first-born and second-born are examples. A., Luze, G., Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., Brooks-Gunn, J., Constantine, J., et al. Psychol. Hurtado-Ortiz, M. T., and Gauvain, M. (2007). Since there are exactly 12 possible birth months, it is discrete, and can be categorical. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version. Standardizing the coefficient yielded a 0.06 SD difference in cognitive skills between firstborn and later-born children. hair color, political party, etc - then it is qualitative. RL and I-MC contributed in data analysis. For more information about the study sample, please visit: https://nces.ed.gov/ecls/birth.asp. Sibling additions, resource dilution, and cognitive development during early childhood. However, the total effect of birth order was marginally moderated by cumulative risks [b (SE) = 0.53 (0.28), 95% CI = (0.02, 1.08), p = 0.061; see Model 1a, Table 3] and significantly moderated by language minority index [b (SE) = 1.23 (0.29), 95% CI = (0.67, 1.80), p < 0.001; see Model 2a, Table 3]. Q. Firstborn children are significantly more likely to be employed and to work as top managers, while later-born children are more likely to be self-employed. The mental scale consisted of 33 items designed to assess 2-year-olds' early cognitive and language skills, including memory, expressive and receptive vocabulary, reasoning and problem solving, and concept attainment (Andreassen and Fletcher, 2007). The families received 1 point for the presence of each of the following four risk factors: (1) Poverty, indicated by whether or not the annual income of the family was below the federal poverty line in the year of data collection (0-no/no risk, 1-yes/at risk); (2) Single-mother household, indicated by whether the father was living in the household (0-yes/no risk, 1-no/at risk); (3) Low maternal education, indicated by whether mothers had high school or lower level of education (0-higher than high school/no risk, 1- high school or lower/at risk); and (4) Maternal depression. Andreassen, C., and Fletcher, P. (2007). Abstract. Using Norwegian data, we found that smoking early in pregnancy is more prevalent for first pregnancies than for later ones. The CES-D scale: a self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Children's engagement in home learning activities was the mediator. Birth order and the intrahousehold allocation of time and education. Early Childhood Literacy 18, 338372. doi: 10.12963/csd.18484, Kim, Y. J. Social Learning Theory. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.56.6-7.497, Duncan, G. J., Dowsett, C. J., Claessens, A., Magnuson, K., Huston, A. C., Klebanov, P., et al. doi: 10.1017/S0142716412000379. For families where English was not the primary language, the assessment was conducted in the home language either by a bilingual interviewer or via the assistance of an interpreter. (2011). Both confirm pregnancy but only a quantitative test tells you how far you're in the process. The longitudinal data collection took place when children were on average 9-month-old (N = 10,700), 24-month-old (N = 9,850), 48-month-old (i.e., preschool wave; N = 8,950), and when children first enrolled in kindergarten (N = 7,000 in 2006, N = 1,900 in 2007). You'll get a detailed solution from a subject matter expert that helps you learn core concepts. Volume 2: Sampling. Stanton-Chapman, T. L., Chapman, D. A., Kaiser, A. P., and Hancock, T. B. This has led researchers to study factors that relate to within-family differences in children's outcomes. J. Bilingual Educ. At the 24-month wave, mothers reported on whether they were taking anti-depression medicine (0-no medicine/no risk, 1-taking medicine/at risk). Older siblings in high-risk or language minority families may also take more responsibilities scaffolding their younger siblings' learning than their counterparts would have in other families (Gregory, 2001; see Zentella, 2005). Another major difference between quantitative and qualitative data lies in how they are analyzed. In terms of math skills, some studies have documented a firstborn advantage in children's math skills during preschool years (Barreto et al., 2017; Lehmann et al., 2018). In addition, for a given amount of resources, parents may treat firstborn children differently than second- or later-born children. Econ. Household 18, 165180. There are many more aspects of home learning environment, such as other learning activities (e.g., toy play and drawing), the availability of literacy materials, and language use by family members, which may further elucidate the effect of birth order on children's developmental outcomes (Bridges and Hoff, 2014). (2013). (2000). Born to be more educated? However, later-borns are less likely to consider themselves to be in good health, and measures of mental health generally decline with birth order. What specific section of the world do cannibals do not live? Categorical variables are often further classified as either: 12, 311. Quantitative Indicate the level of measurement for the data set described: Heights of ceilings in a building. The magnitude of the firstborn advantage on child outcomes, especially children's literacy skills at preschool, became smaller as cumulative risks increased and diminished to non-significant for children exposed to three or more of the following risk factors: poverty, single-mother household, low maternal education, and maternal depression. doi: 10.1016/j.cogdev.2016.10.001, Pratt, M. E., McClelland, M. M., Swanson, J., and Lipscomb, S. T. (2016). Children who died or were adopted before 9 months or born to mothers <15 years of age were excluded from the sample. At the 24-month and preschool waves, the accumulation of multiple risk factors was measured via parent interview. In the past two decades, with the increased accessibility of administrative datasets on large swaths of the population, economists and other researchers have been better able to identify the role of birth order in the outcomes of children. One possible explanation for these differences is that cognitive ability varies systematically by birth order. However, this was a difficult model to test, as characteristics other than family income and child quality vary with family size. (2014). Based on their performance, children were then routed to a set of supplementary items with low-, middle-, or high-difficulty level. The confluence theory states that the number of children curtail the amount and quality of intellectual resources at home (Zajonc, 1983). Properties of dual language input that shape bilingual development and properties of environments that shape dual language input, in Input and Experience in Bilingual Development, eds T. Grter and J. Paradis (Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company), 119140. Once again, the magnitudes are quite large. J. What years of time was the separate but equal doctrine the law of the land in the US? These theories are controversial, as are the realness of birth order effects themselves. What are the cylinder head torque settings of a Toyota 3S engine? from the University of California, Berkeley and her Ph.D. in economics from Harvard University. O C. The IRT scores (possible range, 037 for literacy and 044 for math) were generated for children's early literacy and math skills, with reliabilities of 0.81 and 0.88, respectively. 46, 485491. However, it is here we see the limitations of these large administrative datasets, as for the most part, we lack necessary detailed information on biological factors and on household dynamics when the children are young. When parents have limited ability to engage their children in learning activities due to challenges such as low educational level, language barriers, or maternal depression, there may not be obvious advantages of being firstborn (Downey, 2001; Cheng et al., 2013). Do they have to give members warning before they bar you? Firstborns are also more likely to be overweight and obese. To examine the moderation of cumulative risks, the interaction term of birth order cumulative risks was added to the mediation models described above. The value of quantitative Variables can be determined by counting or measuring something. We expected both the direct effect of being later-born (i.e., path c') and the indirect effect via home learning activities (i.e., path a) to be less negative or even positive in high-risk or language minority families than in low-risk or English-speaking families. Examples of quantitative characteristics are age, BMI, creatinine, and time from birth to death. Early Child Dev. We compared children with and without older sibling(s), rather than firstborn and later-born children within the same household. Development of the survey of parent/provider expectations and knowledge (SPEAK). 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