where did the western diet come from?

In contrasting pre- and postagricultural diets, it is important to consider not only the nutrient qualities and types of foods that likely would have been consumed by preagricultural hominins but to also recognize the types of foods and their nutrient qualities that could not have been regularly consumed before the development of agriculture, industrialization, and advanced technology. A similar situation exists for refined vegetable oils, except that they contain 2 fat-soluble vitamins (vitamin E and vitamin K) (64). This transfer of foods, as well as other plants, animals, humans, and diseases, is now known as the Columbian Exchange. Preceding the Industrial Revolution, all cereals were ground with the use of stone milling tools, and unless the flour was sieved, it contained the entire contents of the cereal grain, including the germ, bran, and endosperm (35). In Michael Pollan article "Escape from the Western Diet", he argues that people should give up the western diet. Diet and nutrition of hunter-gatherers. The typical Western diet yields a net acid load estimated to be 50 mEq/d (148). Salami F, Ozkan H, Brandolini A, Schafer-Pregl R, Martin W. McGovern PE, Voigt MM, Glusker DL, Exner LJ. Increasingly, clinical trials and interventions that use dietary treatments with nutritional characteristics similar to those found in preindustrial and preagricultural diets have confirmed the beneficial health consequences predicted by the template of evolutionary discordance theory. Neolithic advances in food-processing procedures allowed for the storage of concentrated sources of animal SFAs (cheese, butter, tallow, and salted fatty meats) for later consumption throughout the year. Five of these 6 foods would not have been components of hominin diets before the advent of animal husbandry or the Industrial Revolution. The hominin fossil record. Furthermore, it became possible to consistently slaughter the animal at peak body fat percentage. Not much. Nutritional info available for raw fruits, vegetables, fish, US Health and Human Services, Food and Drug Administration, Americas eating habits: changes and consequences, Australian aboriginal plant foods: a consideration of their nutritional composition and health implications, Estimation of net endogenous noncarbonic acid production in humans from diet potassium and protein contents, Estimation of the net acid load of the diet of ancestral preagricultural, Relationship between urinary calcium and net acid excretion as determined by dietary protein and potassium: a review, Effect of age on blood acid-base composition in adult humans: role of age-related renal functional decline, Jr. The dominant (>50% fat energy) fatty acids in the fat storage depots (adipocytes) of wild mammals are saturated fatty acids (SFAs), whereas the dominant fatty acids in muscle and all other organ tissues are polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) and monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) (11). Pollan believes that Americans need to figure a way to escape the Western diet due to its negative effects and unhealthy features that can greatly damage Fundamental Feasts For some cultures, eating off the land isand always has beena way of life. The incorporation of distilled alcoholic beverages into the human diet came much later. Recent clinical trials have shown that calorie-restricted, high-protein diets are more effective than are calorie-restricted, high-carbohydrate diets in promoting (136138) and maintaining (139) weight loss in overweight subjects while producing less hunger and more satisfaction (140). Why did Wagner turn on Putin and what does it mean for Ukraine? The Southern Diet: A Historical View on Food Consumption and - LWW Not too much. The fiber content (15.1 g/d) (23) of the typical US diet is considerably lower than recommended values (2530 g) (116). The concept of this diet was developed in the pursuit of reflecting food patterns, which were typical of Crete, most parts of Greece, as well as Italy in the 1960s. Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. Consequently, the total per capita fructose consumption (fructose from HFCS and fructose from the digestion of sucrose) increased from 23.1 kg in 1970 to 28.9 kg in 2000. Mean nutrient density of various foods groups (418-kJ samples)1. It is likely that the metabolic syndrome may extend to other chronic illnesses and conditions that are widely prevalent in Western societies, including: myopia (80), acne (81), gout (79), polycystic ovary syndrome, epithelial cell cancers (breast, colon, and prostate), male vertex balding, skin tags and acanthosis nigricans (78). The absolute quantity of fat in wild mammals is dependent on the species body mass larger mammals generally maintain greater body fat percentages by weight than do smaller animals (21,56). Nouvelles approches experimentales et ethnographique, Flour for mans bread, a history of milling, Secular changes in the stature of adults and the secular trend of modern sugar consumption, Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies, OConnell JF. Dietary protein is also inversely related to blood homocysteine concentration (127), an independent risk factor for CVD. Although sugars and grains with a high glycemic load now represent a dominant element of the modern urban diet, these foods were rarely or never consumed by average citizens as recently as 200 y ago. First published on Sat 24 Jun 2023 12.24 EDT. The first diet book came out in 1558, and it is still in print today. Accordingly, the widespread consumption of highly refined grain flours of uniformly small particulate size represents a recent secular phenomenon dating to the past 150200 y (35). What Is the Western Diet? Allison DB, Fontaine KR, Manson JE, Stevens J, VanItallie TB. Furthermore, fiber-depleted, refined grains represent 85% of the grains consumed in the United States (Table 1), and because refined grains contain 400% less fiber than do whole grains (by energy), they further dilute the total dietary fiber intake. In the United States before 1850, virtually all cattle were free range or pasture fed and were typically slaughtered at 45 y of age (66). Nouvelles approches experimentales et ethnographiques, Wild grass seed harvesting and implications for domestication, Prehistoire de lagriculture. The villagers, who subsisted on a diet of mostly millet and sorghum, harbored far more microbial diversity than the Florentines, who ate a variant of the refined, Western diet. However, the inland living Maori of New Zealand lost the salt habit (53), and the most recently studied inland hunter-gatherers add no or little salt to their food on a daily basis (54). Almost all dietary and storage fats are triacylglycerols, compounds in which 3 fatty acid molecules are bound to a single glycerol molecule. Studies of contemporary hunter-gatherers show that gathered honey represented a relatively minor dietary component over the course of a year, despite high intakes in some groups during short periods of availability. What . Mediterranean diet: eating behaviors and lifestyles. Adapted from Cleave (38). In the 57 million-year period since the evolutionary emergence of hominins (bipedal primates within the taxonomic tribe hominini; note that the newer term hominin supplants the previous term, hominid) 20 species may have existed (Figure 1) (19). Diet Culture: A Brief History - The Social and Health Research Center Some experts say modern humans should eat from a Stone Age menu. Modern cooking. Substantial evidence now indicates that to prevent the risk of chronic disease, the absolute amount of dietary fat is less important than is the type of fat (97). The hydrogenation process introduced a novel trans fatty acid (trans elaidic acid) into the human diet, which elevates blood cholesterol concentrations and leads to an increased risk of CVD (113). Hence, maximal or peak body fat percentages in wild mammals are maintained only for a few months during the course of a year, even for mammals residing at tropical and southern latitudes (59). Family affair: 2023 draft class rich with NHL bloodlines . Hence, as was the case with dairy foods, before the Epi-Paleolithic (1000011000 y ago) and Neolithic (10000 to 5500 y ago) periods, there was little or no previous evolutionary experience for cereal grain consumption throughout hominin evolution. Furthermore, high-protein diets have been shown to improve metabolic control in patients with type 2 diabetes (119,120,124). Ostman EM, Liljeberg Elmstahl HG, Bjorck IM. During the period from 800 to 1300 AD, various populations in Europe, the Near East, and China learned to distill alcoholic beverages (47). The new science of Darwinian medicine, Paleolithic nutrition. None of the authors had a financial interest or professional or personal affiliation that compromised the scientific integrity of this work. Western Diet: Does This Good Ol' American Food Contribute To - BetterMe Although honey likely was a favored food by all hominin species, seasonal availability would have restricted regular access. It is nondigestible by the host and reaches the distal gut where it is processed by the gut microbiota. In postmenopausal women aged 50 y, 7.2% have osteoporosis and 39.6% have osteopenia (16). The mass of the edible organs and tissues were calculated from the allometric relation between body mass and organ and tissue mass (6063). They had eaten a traditional diet, meat or vegetables, but did not have refined flour, sugar, these refined oils. The western diet, he argues, is not good and should be put to an end. Characteristics of the Western diet that fueled the obesity epidemic may also impact kidney disease incidence and progression. These changes have given us the Western Diet comprising processed foods, especially white flour and white flour products, an excess of fat and sugar and almost no mention of the many varieties of fruit and vegetables that sustained us in the past. In numerous population studies, summarized by Obarzanek et al (130), higher blood pressure has been associated with lower intakes of protein. When the environment remains relatively constant, stabilizing selection tends to maintain genetic traits that represent the optimal average for a population (2). Technologic developments of the early and mid 19th centurysuch as the steam engine, mechanical reaper, and railroadsallowed for increased grain harvests and efficient transport of both grain and cattle, which in turn spawned the practice of feeding grain (corn primarily) to cattle sequestered in feedlots (66). These studies indicate how multiple interrelated qualities of Western diets and recently introduced Neolithic and Industrial Era foods may drive a variety of mechanisms that promote the development of chronic diseases. How Modi went from being banned to embraced by the United States Oils made from walnuts, almonds, olives, sesame seeds, and flax seeds likely were first produced via the rendering and pressing process between 5000 and 6000 y ago. Epidemiologic evidence supports the clinical data, which shows a cardiovascular protective effect of dietary protein. Zammit VA, Waterman IJ, Topping D, McKay G. Kris-Etherton PM, Harris WS, Appel LJ. What People Really Ate In The Wild West - Grunge In the United States, during the 90-y period from 1909 to 1999, a striking increase in the use of vegetable oils occurred (Figure 4). Total body fat and total body protein, as a percentage of energy, were calculated from the respective mean values by weight by using the cubic regression equations developed by Cordain et al (20). History of the Mediterranean Diet - Mediterranean Diet Guru Briefly, the Western diet was designed to mimic the diet typically consumed by middle-aged Americans (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 2014), whereas the Mediterranean diet reflected key aspects of the human Mediterranean diet (Kafatos et al., 2000). The advent of the oil-seed processing industry at the beginning of the 20th century significantly raised the total intake of vegetable fat (Figure 4), which directly increased the dietary level of n6 PUFAs at the expense of a lowered level of n3 PUFAs because of the inherently higher concentrations of n6 PUFAs and lower concentrations of n3 PUFAs in most vegetable oils (111). The first evidence of crystalline sucrose production appears about 500 BC in northern India (37). Mustad VA, Etherton TD, Cooper AD, et al. Three dietary factors are primarily responsible for the dietary ratio of sodium to potassium, which is >1.0. Fifty million Americans are hypertensive; 11 million have type 2 diabetes, and 37 million adults maintain high-risk total cholesterol concentrations (>240 mg/dL) (15). New manufacturing procedures allowed vegetable oils to take on atypical structural characteristics. Seasonal fluctuations in percentage body fat in caribou. Wild animals and free-range or pasture-fed cattle rarely display this trait (11). What's on it may surprise you. Analysis Of Food As Thought: Escape From The Western Diet The glycemic index, originally developed in 1981, is a relative comparison of the blood glucose raising potential of various foods or combination of foods based on equal amounts of carbohydrate in the food (70). Because whole grains and milk maintain the next to the lowest nutrient density rankings, displacement of fruit, vegetables, lean meats, and seafood by these 2 staple food groups lowers the overall micronutrient density in the diet. In addition to high-glycemic-load carbohydrates, other elements of Neolithic and Industrial Era foods may contribute to the insulin resistance underlying metabolic syndrome diseases. Even with selective butchering by hominins, in which much of the lean muscle meat is discarded, MUFAs and PUFAs constitute the greatest percentage (>50% of energy as fat) of edible fatty acids in the carcass of wild mammals throughout most of the year (Figure 6). MUFAs and PUFAs are the dominant fats in the edible carcass of caribou for all 12 mo of the year, as illustrated in Figure 6 (11,6065). Effects of soy protein and its hydrolysates on the formation of heterocyclic aromatic amines in roasted pork. In obese women, hypocaloric, high-protein diets improved insulin sensitivity and prevented muscle loss, whereas hypocaloric, high-carbohydrate diets worsened insulin sensitivity and caused reductions in fat-free mass (125). Additionally, mixtures of foods listed in Table 1 make up the ubiquitous processed foods (eg, cookies, cake, bakery foods, breakfast cereals, bagels, rolls, muffins, crackers, chips, snack foods, pizza, soft drinks, candy, ice cream, condiments, and salad dressings) that dominate the typical US diet. The Nordic diet isn't exactly a new phenomenon. In the past 30 y, qualitative features of refined sugar consumption have changed concurrently with the quantitative changes. diet, western glycemic load Issue Section: Commentary EVOLUTIONARY DISCORDANCE Evolution acting through natural selection represents an ongoing interaction between a species' genome and its environment over the course of multiple generations. During the ensuing Holocene (10000 y ago until the present), cereal grains were rarely consumed as year round staples by most worldwide hunter-gatherers (32,33), except by certain groups living in arid and marginal environments (32,34). Food types within food groups are based on the most commonly consumed foods in the US diet (135,136). The known health benefits of a net base-yielding diet include preventing and treating osteoporosis (150,151), age-related muscle wasting (152), calcium kidney stones (153,154), hypertension (155,156), and exercise-induced asthma (157) and slow the progression of age- and disease-related chronic renal insufficiency (158). Escape From The Western Diet Summary - 805 Words | Studymode The Western diet frequently contains excessive saturated and trans fatty acids and has too little n3 PUFAs than n6 PUFAs (9799). How the Western Diet Has Derailed Our Evolution | Portside Not shown in Table 5 are energy-dense, nutrient-poor foods such as separated fats and refined sugars that contribute neither to the acid nor the base load. The typical Western (American) diet is low in fruits and vegetables, and high in fat and sodium. 3 This excess sugar accounts for more than 13% of the daily caloric intake with beverages constituting 47% of these added sugars. Taken together, the addition of manufactured salt to the food supply and the displacement of traditional potassium-rich foods by foods introduced during the Neolithic and Industrial periods caused a 400% decline in the potassium intake while simultaneously initiating a 400% increase in sodium ingestion (4,12,159). With the advent of chromatographic fructose enrichment technology in the late 1970s, it became economically feasible to manufacture high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) in mass quantity (42). Dietary fructose may contribute to insulin resistance via its unique ability among all sugars to cause a shift in balance from oxidation to esterification of serum nonesterified free fatty acids (89,90). On digestion, sucrose is hydrolyzed in the gut into its 2 equal molecular moieties of glucose and fructose. Then the main theory throughout the article Nutritionism. With the invention of mechanized steel roller mills and automated sifting devices in the latter part of the 19th century (35), the nutritional characteristics of milled grain changed significantly because the germ and bran were removed in the milling process, leaving flour comprised mainly of endosperm of uniformly small particulate size (35,36). Similar trends in refined sucrose consumption have been reported during the Industrial Era for the Netherlands, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and the United States (39). 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'India is now a linchpin': US looks to Narendra Modi's visit to counter The Paleolithic diet, Paleo diet, caveman diet, or stone-age diet is a modern fad diet consisting of foods thought by its proponents to mirror those eaten by humans during the Paleolithic era. Michael Pollan Debunks Food Myths Truswell AS. Denied a visa for "severe violations of religious freedom," he was effectively banned from entering the country for . The Western Diet mainly consists of fried foods, refined grains, sugar, high carbohydrate and fats, and meats (3). High dietary intakes of SFAs and trans fatty acids increase the risk of CVD by elevating blood concentrations of total and LDL cholesterol (97,100102). According to the US Bureau of the Census, 1 the Southern region of the United States contains states as far north as Delaware, and Texas is the region's Western border state. Milk, yogurt, and ice cream, despite having relatively low glycemic loads (Table 2), are highly insulinotropic, with insulin indexes comparable with white bread (84). Daily net acid load per 10 460-kJ hypothetical diet, for which a single food group is solely consumed; 32.9 mEq/d was added to baseline to account for diet-independent organic acid production. The Myth of Nutrition', puts the problem in a . Comer J. Distilled beverages. Westernized diet, defined as high dietary intake of saturated fats and sucrose and low intake of fiber, represent a growing health risk contributing to the increased occurrence of metabolic diseases, e.g., diabetes and obesity in countries adapting a westernized lifestyle. Italian Luigi Cornaro wrote The Art of Living Long. The Western pattern diet is a modern dietary pattern that is generally characterized by high intakes of pre-packaged foods, refined grains, red meat, processed meat, high-sugar drinks, candy and sweets, fried foods, industrially produced animal products, butter and other high-fat dairy products, eggs, potatoes, corn (and high-fructose corn syrup. In particular, food staples and food-processing procedures introduced during the Neolithic and Industrial Periods have fundamentally altered 7 crucial nutritional characteristics of ancestral hominin diets: 1) glycemic load, 2) fatty acid composition, 3) macronutrient composition, 4) micronutrient density, 5) acid-base balance, 6) sodium-potassium ratio, and 7) fiber content. The western diet includes high amounts of these foods: Diets containing lower concentrations (20% of energy) of fructose worsened insulin sensitivity in hyperinsulinemic men (87); more recently it was shown that fructose infusions in healthy men and women induce insulin resistance (88). PDF Escape from the western diet 4 Other sources include cookies, cakes, and candy. Unrefined wild plant foods like those available to contemporary hunter-gatherers typically exhibit low glycemic indices (73). Although both scientists and lay people alike may frequently identify a single dietary element as the cause of chronic disease (eg, saturated fat causes heart disease and salt causes high blood pressure), evidence gleaned over the past 3 decades now indicates that virtually all so-called diseases of civilization have multifactorial dietary elements that underlie their etiology, along with other environmental agents and genetic susceptibility. Chemically, fats are defined as acylglycerolscompounds in which a fatty acid molecule (acyl group) is linked to a glycerol molecule by an ester bond. The earliest salt use is argued to have taken place on Lake Yuncheng in the Northern Province of Shanxi, China, by 6000 BC (51). Modern feedlot operations involving as many as 100000 cattle emerged in the 1950s and have developed to the point that a characteristically obese (30% body fat) (67) 545-kg pound steer can be brought to slaughter in 14 mo (68). Accordingly, the consumption of refined sugar or foods containing refined sugar reduces the total vitamin and mineral (micronutrient) density of the diet by displacing more nutrient-dense foods. Most likely the first variety to reach Europe was yellow in color, since in Spain and Italy they were known as . In the affected genotype, this evolutionary discordance manifests itself phenotypically as disease, increased morbidity and mortality, and reduced reproductive success (13). The nutrient density in various food groups for the 13 vitamins and minerals most frequently lacking in the US diet are contrasted in Table 4 (64,143,144). Red wine, drunk in moderation, is even a bonus inclusion. Plasma homocysteine as a cardiovascular risk factor: causal, consequential, or of no consequence? [1] The diet avoids processed food and typically includes vegetables , fruits , nuts , roots , and meat and excludes dairy products , grains , sugar , legumes , processed oils , salt , alcohol , and . Ann Epidemiol, Possible protective effect of milk, meat and fish for cerebrovascular disease mortality in Japan, The influence of thermic effect of food on satiety, Nutrition Society Medal Lecture. Before the development of agriculture and animal husbandry hominin dietary choices would have been necessarily limited to minimally processed, wild plant and animal foods. How did milk become a staple food? - BBC Future LC, SBE, and SL conceived the article and wrote much of the evolutionary, historical, and background perspective. The Western Diet: What We Can Learn and How We Can Change It The Evolution of Diet - National Geographic Calculations were made with the use of previously described procedures (148). Mezzano D, Munoz X, Martinez C, et al. In 1519, Cortez discovered tomatoes growing in Montezuma's gardens and brought seeds back to Europe where they were planted as ornamental curiosities, but not eaten. Specifically, chronic hyperglycemia and hyperinsulinemia induced by high glycemic load carbohydrates may elicit a number of hormonal and physiologic changes that promote insulin resistance (71,77,78).
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