Setyawan AD. The GoG views agriculture as important for the diversification of the economy. With commodity rice, there are two main environmental impacts to consider: methane emissions and water use. Seedling density was analyzed using log transformation due to non-normally distributed residuals. These results contribute to a better understanding of how indigenous farmers perceive, cope with and adapt to problems in rice field agroecosystems, which is important for landscape management. 1 Citations Metrics Abstract Background Rice field agroecosystems produce food for more than half of the world's population and deliver important services supporting farmers' livelihoods. A similar problem was articulated for the irrigation infrastructure, which could result in a poor water supply and lead to the continuing cultivation of dry rice fields rather than wet rice fields. The capability of a farmer to carry out difficult work in the rice field was often linked to the farmers age and health. primary forest) to farmed (e.g. Figure4 shows the energy input, GHGEs and production costs for rice production among the different crop establishment options applied with 1M5R. (DR, Male, Kenyah, 59, VI). In the wet rice field, several farmers mentioned that before planting they simply chopped the grass and let it decay like a natural fertiliser. Some farmers coped with poor soil quality by applying synthetic fertiliser or said that they kept a vegetation strip above the field. In California, a state ravaged by drought, rice is one of the most water-intensive crops grown. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. Seedling density (no. More importantly, MecT provided significant economic and environmental benefits to smallholder farmers in the MRD because of reduced input use. In this study, we identified the problems, causes and consequences of problems as perceived by farmers, as well as the solutions applied in the local rice field agroecosystems (RAEs) in the upper Baram, Sarawak. The problem is connected to microrelief microzones with slope differences and to the landscape element of a hill as a topographical factor. The Kenyah traditionally resided in longhouses with verandas, where traditional festivals were celebrated, and rice cultivation is an important cultural element as well as essential for peoples livelihoods [8, 61, 62]. Anau N. A history of the Kenyah Leppo K and Nyibun in Pujungan Subdistrict. Mariel J, Carrire SM, Penot E, Danthu P, Rafidison V, Labeyrie V. Exploring farmers agrobiodiversity management practices and knowledge in clove agroforests of Madagascar. Farmers expressed concerns about the use of pesticides, which could harm the health of the rice plants. Effect of crop establishment methods and weed control treatments on weed management and rice yield. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-020-01389-4. 2016;204:3409. The SRP's stated aim is to transform the global rice sector by: improving smallholder livelihoods. 2USDA, ARS, Adaptive Cropping Systems Laboratory. Anthropological and archaeological approaches to foraging-farming transitions in Southeast Asia. However, one farmer said that for Long Lamai: Now some people no paddy [rice] [..] to eat. (2019)7 in the same region of the MRD. Clean. Google Scholar. With organic, youve got to throw all of that out the window.. Gummert, M., Quilty, J., Hung, N. V. & Vial, L. Engineering and management of rice harvesting. Farmers reported frequently choosing rice fields near the village to save on travel time and avoid long distances for rice transportation. First, it requires large amounts of fresh water, which can cause significant environmental pressures in regions with water stress. Castonguay AC, Burkhard B, Mller F, Horgan FG, Settele J. Article Demography of swidden cultivators in Southeast Asia. We seldom use the baja, the fertiliser. This rate is bound to further rise as a result of an increase in the demand for food by . In: Barker G, Janowski M, editors. Participants mentioned that some of their solutions to control weeds can at times be ineffective or result in even stronger weed regrowth. For data analysis, the sketch drawings were digitised. In collaboration with the non-profit Jubilee Justice, Stygers latest project is working with Black farmers in the South to develop SRI systems that perform well where theyre growing, in Louisiana, Mississippi, Georgia, and South Carolina. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.njas.2010.08.002. Farmers mentioned avoiding planting rice in weed-dominated areas, e.g. The landscape element related to soil quality was fallow land, which allows the area to recover and improve soil quality. 1 Tim Searchinger et al., World Resources report: Creating a sustainable food future, World Resources Institute, July 2019, research.wri.org. The four different farmers fields were considered as blocks or replicates and the four crop establishment methods were applied in each field (block). In response to certain problems, farmers could abandon their rice fields, for example fields with poor accessibility that makes the journey to the rice field unattractive. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. 2012;32:629. The pests most frequently mentioned in the interviews were the sambar deer (Cervus unicolor) and bearded pig (Sus barbatus) and birds. Crop establishment and nutrient management for dry season (Boro) rice in coastal areas. The information about the participant who provided the quotation states whether it was from a dry rice (DR) or wet rice (WR) field interview, and the participants ethnic affiliation, gender and age. Another method mentioned by farmers for controlling weeds is by maintaining a clearing of vegetation around the field to reduce weed migration. Other problems are known to be associated with upland rice, an RAE that is widely found in the uplands of Sarawak, and are caused by agricultural intensification and the shortening of fallow periods. 229, 103114 (2018). J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. One Penan farmer assessed soil quality by the appearance and type of plants found in an area. Adv. Flor, R. J. et al. Agriculture contributes to a number larger of environmental issues that cause environmental degradation including: climate change, deforestation, biodiversity loss . In wet rice fields, microrelief microzones were perceived in terms of field level differences of small depressions or elevations. 2023 BioMed Central Ltd unless otherwise stated. (2020) state in their research, including Long Lamai and Long Banga, that farmers store rice in addition to other traditional adaptation strategies such as shifting agriculture, intercropping or forest preservation in order to cope with climate change issues [40]. This is Ureu Kemanen [type of grass], [], you see there many, [], if this grows many like this, you are slashing here, you grow the paddy: good. Sci. Johnson LM. On a smaller scale, farmers perceive ecological and agronomic processes in spatial sub-units within landscape elements that are addressed by the practices they apply [45]. Our research questions were as follows: (i) What problems do indigenous farmers perceive in their RAE? Plus, regenerative systems like Massa and Krachs incorporate practices like cover crops and grazing that improve soil health and therefore have the potential to hold carbon in the soil. FAO. 2017;25:15366. Resisting dams and plantations: indigenous identity in Sarawak. Therefore, even though the Penan already had profound knowledge of the surrounding landscape and forest resources [81, 83], compared to the other ethnic groups, farming is quite new to them and their culture. Fick SE, Hijmans RJ. PubMed In the dry rice field, one farmer highlighted that water availability was better down the slope than up it, and was therefore associated with slope differences. Prod. If a problem was derived from or linked to a landscape element or microzone, a code was applied to link the spatial unit to the problem. Google Scholar. Dawoe et al. Sakai S, Choy YK, Kishimoto-Yamada K, Takano KT, Ichikawa M, Samejima H, et al. The FoodPrint of Crops Learn More In Arkansas, most farmers grow rice in rotation with other commodity crops, primarily soybeans and then some corn, cotton, and other grains like sorghum. Romasanta, R. R. et al. The findings indicated that the indigenous farmers in Long Lamai and Long Banga not only perceived environmental problems in the RAEs, but social and agricultural technology system problems as well, often with several complex and interrelated causes. In terms of greenhouse gas emissions from staple foods, rice has one of the smallest footprints per ton of protein and is much more efficient than any animal-based food. 2020;17:191524. Berlin, Germany; 2019. Thats important because water use is the other big factor. Hum Ecol. Another cause that farmers with dry rice fields mentioned was soil erosion, which can result in the displacement of fertile soil. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40850-020-00059-1. Open access funding provided by University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU). Lisa Elaine Held, Published: 10/01/21, Last updated: 10/01/21. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-020-00822-x. Improved rice production involves improved soil, nutrient management, water use, and tillage practices. (2016) describe for the Dayak Tunjung farmers in East Borneo who use plant species indicators to monitor soil quality for rice cultivation on an annual basis and to decide whether the field need to be abandoned [78]. Soc Nat Resour. Organizers are expected to ensure that the growers do not sell the seeds elsewhere. Given the significance of RAEs to indigenous farmers in the upper Baram, we anticipate that the studys findings will contribute to a better understanding of local challenges facing indigenous farmers, as well as their problem-solving strategies. Previous studies report a wide range for the estimate of net energy value for irrigated rice: 13.7MJkg-1 rice produced in Ecoinvent (2019)34; 11.312.3MJkg1 for rice in the Philippines in Quilty et al. This study examined indigenous farmers perceptions of problems in local rice field agroecosystems (RAEs), their causes and consequences, and the solutions applied, and how these problems were connected to surrounding landscape elements and microzones. 2001;51:8596. This study compared four crop establishment options: manual broadcasting (BroadC), blower seeding (BlowS), drum seeding (DrumS), and mechanized transplanting (MecT). We hypothesize that MecT, although requiring a high upfront cost, will perform as well or better than BroadC and the other practices when assessed against performance indicators for sustainable rice production. reducing the social, environmental and climate footprint of rice production. Paddy Water Environ. The energy efficiency value in the current study (1114MJkg-1) was similar with that reported in Ecoinvent (2019)34 and was higher by 10% than that reported in Quilty et al. ADS PubMed In addition, the variation in seedling density (or planting uniformity) for MecT was substantially lower (SD=54.1) than BlowS (SD=130.0), BroadC (SD=137.8) and DrumS (SD=104.9). 2012;268:617. For example, animal disturbance and weed occurrence were perceived to be problems that were rooted in surrounding landscape elements such as fallow land or grassland, since they were perceived to serve as habitats for pests and weedy plants. Indian J Tradit Knowl. Across the four treatments, the rice yield ranged from 7.3 to 7.5Mgha1 and 6.2 to 6.8Mgha1 in the WS and SA seasons, respectively. Fertilizer inputs, such as nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P2O5) and potassium (K2O) were calculated based on the chemical content of N, P2O5 and K2O, such as urea (460-0) and DAP (1846-0). Farmers were thus trying to avoid using synthetic fertiliser. There are available options for crop establishment, but a major research gap is quantitative data on the best approach in terms of sustainability. We have the knowledge that it can be done, she said, and her team is working on approaches to mechanization that include experimenting with machinery used in vegetable cultivation. In addition to soil-related issues, indigenous farmers in the interior of north Sarawak perceive problems in rice cultivation related to climate change issues such as droughts, floods and poor years for agriculture in general [40]. Farmers noted that they adapted their management to some microzone properties, for example manual weeding by pulling was only essential in weed-infested microzones of the rice field. South East Asian Stud. Farmers also mentioned monkeys, including pig-tailed (Macaca nemestrina) or long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis), which invade rice fields and destroy the rice plants. The indicators including energy efficiency, agronomic use efficiency, net income, and greenhouse gas emissions (GHGEs) were quantified based on four treatments including manual broadcast-seeding, blower seeding, drum seeding, and mechanized transplanting. 64, 4758. How does rice straw burning compare with other straw management practices in terms of on-field CH4 and N2O emissions? When this type of grass is grown under the paddy, we have to weeding it. https://ghgprotocol.org/Third-Party-Databases/IPCC-Emissions-Factor-Database (2013). Similarly, walking along a clearing of vegetation around the field spreads human scents that should keep animals away. Lampayan, R. M., Rejesus, R. M., Singleton, G. R. & Bouman, B. Vegetation above a rice field was considered by some farmers to be an additional source of natural fertiliser for the rice field. Total energy input was 12.515.3 GJ ha-1 and 12.613.5 GJ ha-1, during the WS and SA seasons, respectively, consisting of 6573% from agronomic inputs and the rest from operations. Furthermore, in Tanzania farmers have noted animal disturbance, droughts and poor soil fertility [75] and in Rwanda water shortages, lack of inputs, rice diseases and soil fertility decline as major constraints in rice productivity [76]. Vietnam rice. In 2020, about 3 million acres of rice were harvested. The vast majority of the worlds rice is grown in Asia, with China and India vastly outproducing all other countries. droughts), human disturbance and synthetic pesticide application, were perceived to have a direct impact on agricultural productivity due to their impact on rice plant growth. Farmers were asked to record input and economic data in diaries, which were checked and collected by project staff every 34weeks. We want to make a taka [wet rice field] []. Yeah, and then, later, on the high tree and they take [and eat the rice]. Long Lamai can only be accessed by a long boat or after a two-hour hike from Long Banga. Article The adoption and integration of scientific knowledge systems into local agricultural practices can have a positive impact on biodiversity and ecosystem services [20, 85]. PMID: 31619630 DOI: 10.3177/jnsv.65.S2 Abstract Emissions factor database. A landscape ethnoecological approach was chosen to undertake this study. 64, 168176 (2014). Traditional forest conservation knowledge/technologies in the Cordillera, Northern Philippines. 2013;8:693727. The shuttle radar topography mission. For example, one farmer mentioned a problem where water was flowing to one side of a poorly levelled field, indicated by healthy growing plants on that side of the field and poor growing plants on the other. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative. Costs of inputs and price of paddy are shown in Table 4. In this study, soil emission levels were calculated based on the conversion factors reported in IPCC (2019)38 using research scenarios with similar specific water and rice straw management and fertilizer application. Besides the artificial element of a hut, path infrastructures were important for travelling to the rice field and ranged from simple walking paths through the rainforest to concrete roads. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0145268 (2015). This related to the notion that spirits or ghosts inhabit the old stone graves and salt springs, and if disturbed farmers could be afflicted by sickness. Ecol Soc. Why cultivate? China Landslides. Berg H, Ekman Sderholm A, Sderstrm A-S, Tam NT. Van Hung, N. et al. The varieties from the two distinct rice field agroecosystems are important as they offer a variety of flavours and are used by the indigenous farmers for several different purposes. To obtain Also, outside Borneo, soil and plant indicators are used to assess the quality of soil, for example in Brazil [90] or Laos [91]. However, traditional rice field agroecosystems are facing a variety of problems, including pests or markets that are hard to access. Furthermore, farmers mentioned various insects, such as worms, caterpillars, grasshoppers, locusts and beetles as the cause of poor rice plant growth. For the shopper trying to support more sustainable rice production, a label might not provide all of the answers, but understanding what organic, SRI, and improved conventional systems look like can help you seek out farms and brands that talk about how theyre implementing those practices. Review: Biodiversity conservation strategy in a native perspective; Case study of shifting cultivation at the Dayaks of Kalimantan. Nevertheless, most farmers do not consider steep slopes in a dry rice field to be an obstacle to rice agriculture. The three ethnic groups are usually referred to as Orang Ulu, which translates as those who dwell upstream or in the interior, an expression that encompasses several ethnic groups with different languages and cultures residing in Sarawaks uplands [57, 58]. An artificial element in the landscape was huts that are used to store rice, equipment and materials, as well as provide shelter for relaxing or remaining in the rice field. Although synthetic fertiliser was associated with increased rice plant growth, according to farmers it came at the expense of low seed quality and the possibility of rice plants lodging, which was related to the microzone of lodged rice plant patches. ISSN 2045-2322 (online). Surrounding landscape influences the abundance of insect predators in rice field. BMC Zool. If a long, long time didnt come and check it, they take it long, long time; three, four, five years, then all is gone. This would avert nearly 0.3C of global warming by 2045, helping to limit global temperature rise to 1.5C and putting the planet on track to achieve the Paris Agreement targets. Irrigation and drainage were applied similarly across the four treatments, but were different for the WS and SA seasons depending on the weather and flood conditions at the research site (Fig. https://doi.org/10.1080/01426397.2016.1269882. In Sustainable rice straw management (eds Gummert, M. et al.) Marten GG. Hoki M. Farming operations and labor requirement for paddy cultivation in Sarawak, East Malaysia. reviewed and edited the mechanization parts; and G.R.S. Long Lamai village, which has about 500 inhabitants, is home to the Penan ethnic group [33]. A global analysis of alternative tillage and crop establishment practices for economically and environmentally efficient rice production. Scientific Reports (Sci Rep) Amster (2008) reported that only a few Kelabit, in the Kelabit Highlands of Sarawak, were aware of the hazardous threat posed by the pesticides frequently applied in wet rice fields [35]. Some of the problems faced by farmers in RAEs are issues related to invasive as well as native pests [12], water shortage issues, market access difficulties [23], pesticide-related health problems [24] and the abandonment of rice fields due to farmers outmigration in search of employment [22]. (DR/WR, Male, Saban, 53). One Saban remarked on the difficulties of getting flat land for the wet rice field in Long Banga: The Kenyah people they plant it because they have no land, so they plant the paddy [wet rice field] in the parit [street trench]. Irrigated rice production is one of the most essential agricultural activities for sustaining our global population, and at the same time, one of the agricultural sectors considered most eco-unfriendly. He said that Arkansas and surrounding states are particularly suited for farming the crop thanks to the lowland landscape, soils that are conducive to holding water, and the right climate. http://www.sustainablerice.org (2019). Thus, if farmers had no land near the village, some mentioned borrowing land to have the rice field closer. 2008;7:64254. GHGE (kg CO2-eq ha-1) is calculated based on Eq. Google Scholar. Tourism. Google Scholar. Conducting research in conservation: social science methods and pracrice. droughts, or social causes, e.g. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-15636-7. Also, if the paddy [rice plant] is good, no need to use the baja [fertiliser], only need to spray [pesticides], thats all, to kill the weed. 2014;1:5981. (2) which is reported in Romasanta (2017)40. Predicting the Water Requirement for Rice Production as Affected by Projected Climate Change in Bihar, India. 1 The largest source of greenhouse gas emissions from human activities in the United States is from burning fossil fuels for electricity, heat, and transportation. Egay K. Re-situating the Saban ethnography: a reflection on the notion of the representation. If no suitable land was available, the solutions were to use the land that is available or to borrow land. This can result in the intrusion of weedy plants into the burnt area and rice field. Besides these two guiding questions, the participants were given free expression in their drawings and were not subjected to time constraints or other restrictions. The final manuscript was read and approved by all authors. A cause of poor soil quality in wet rice fields was poor levelling of the pond by removing the fertile black soil until the red soil appeared, especially if machines (bulldozers) were used: Machine [for levelling] is not good for this wet paddy field. 250, 107776. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2020.107776 (2020). Cite this article. []. However, this study did not focus on a complete list of landscape elements or microzones perceived by indigenous people, but rather on using landscape elements and microzones as spatial analytical units to identify indigenous farmers perceived problems in the rice fields. 2017;1:116. Thus, producing more rice at lower environmental . Ecol. Janowski M, Langub J. Footprints and marks in the forest: The Penan and the Kelabit of Borneo. It will fall down. Johnson, D. E., Haefele, S. M., Rathore, A. L., Romyen, P. & Pane, H. Direct seeding of rice and opportunities for improving productivity in Asia. Consequently, rice grains can fall into the water or onto the ground, resulting in moist grains or the grains being eaten by rats. Riu-Bosoms C, Vidal-Amat T, Duane A, Fernandez-Llamazares A, Guze M, Luz AC, et al. Kremen C, Ostfeld RS. Harvesting in all treatment plots was done using combine harvesters (Kubota DC-70). A call to ecologists: measuring, analyzing, and managing ecosystem services. When asked why that was the case, the interpreter explained that the owner might be absent from the village due to employment in the city, for example. 2020. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12145656. This is why it happened. Wartmann FM, Purves RS. Scientific Reports Some studies have shown reducing floods comes with a tradeoff in the form of increased nitrous oxide emissions, but overall research shows that because systems like AWD reduce methane emissions so efficiently up to 90 percent it still adds up to a net decrease in emissions, as long as excessive nitrogen is not introduced through high doses of fertilizer.. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8373.2011.01446.x. A record number of people are now internally displaced. Furthermore, farmers suggested that one way to spread the risk of animal disturbance was to adhere to the community planting time, which is coordinated between the villages. Porter-Bolland L, Ellis EA, Guariguata MR, Ruiz-Malln I, Negrete-Yankelevich S, Reyes-Garca V. Community managed forests and forest protected areas: an assessment of their conservation effectiveness across the tropics. 2). Who counts? Thus, farmers reported attempting to collect snails by hand or using pesticides. Correspondence to Vijith H, Dodge-Wan D. Spatial and statistical trend characteristics of rainfall erosivity (R) in Upper catchment of Baram river, Borneo. Agricultural activities are not only perceived to have an impact on the surrounding landscape; our study also demonstrated that indigenous farmers perceived problems in the RAEs to be caused by surrounding landscape elements. Furthermore, the interviews elicited the perceived problems in the rice field agroecosystem and their relations to landscape elements and microzones. Land Degrad Dev. Ethnoecology: an approach to understanding traditional agricultural knowledge. In the US, a handful of small farms are experimenting with SRI techniques in dryland rice systems. CAS The LEGATO cross-disciplinary integrated ecosystem service research framework: an example of integrating research results from the analysis of global change impacts and the social, cultural and economic system dynamics of irrigated rice production. J Ethnobiol. In the US, farmers have increasingly been implementing these practices. In the research area, the farmers used their knowledge about weather phenomena to identify the right burning and planting time.
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