alfalfa. There are few uniformly applied laws on labeling foods as GMO meaning that it is very easy to consume GMOs without knowing. Dixon R.M., Coates D.B. But at another point, he said of the decision to allow unrestricted planting: We are working within the statutory and regulatory system we have available to us.. Ma L., Wang Y., Liu W., Liu Z. Overexpression of an alfalfa GDP-mannose 3,5-epimerase gene enhances acid, drought and salt tolerance in transgenic Arabidopsis by increasing ascorbate accumulation. Inclusion in an NLM database does not imply endorsement of, or agreement with, Baucher et al. PAs can bind with protein in rumen thereby decreasing its degradation, and reducing the risk of rumen bloat [11]. As alfalfa was approaching maturity during this transition, the CP content and forage degradability decrease along with an increase in unavailable protein fractions [63], which could be attributed to the decrease in leaf to stem ratio [64] and lignin accumulation in stems [62]. The vacuolar Na, Zhang Y.M., Zhang H.M., Liu Z.H., Li H.C., Guo X.L., Li G.L. Most GMO . It is cultivated in all continents. 2. In his 2013/14 Annual Report, Ontarios Environment Commissioner said he was disappointed that the Ontario Ministry of the Environment failed to address the farmers concerns about GE alfalfa. Countering this problem is challenging because of the legislative advantages of biotechnology companies and the few GMO restrictions in place at a federal level. Page . FOIA McCaslin M., Weakley D., Temple S., Reisen P. Advances in Dairy Technology, Proceedings of Western Canadian Dairy Seminar, Red Deer, AB, Canada, 1013 March 2015. To increase the accumulation of PAs and anthocyanins in alfalfa, Ray et al. Efficacy of a BVDV subunit vaccine produced in alfalfa transgenic plants. Effect of variety and maturity stage on chemical composition, carbohydrate and protein subfractions, in vitro rumen degradability and energy values of timothy and alfalfa. Sewalt V.J.H., Glasser W.G., Beauchemin K.A. This is because, during floral transition, the plants switch from vegetative growth to reproductive growth and repartition their energy supply and photoassimilate to support reproductive development [61,62]. Critics also said that restricting the growing of alfalfa would undermine Washingtons efforts to persuade other countries to accept genetically modified crops. And exports of nonorganic but nonengineered crops to certain countries can be jeopardized if genetically engineered material is detected in significant amounts. The feeding requirements for organic farm animals (livestock) usually cause higher levels of omega-3 fatty acids. Such nitrogen-fixing relationship is also a benefit to soil by improving its structure [2]. Although the growing area has declined to some extent in recent years [6], alfalfa is still an important forage crop in the livestock industry. That, Mr. Vilsack argued, would help prevent litigation, like the lawsuits that have already delayed the approval of genetically altered alfalfa and sugar beets. official website and that any information you provide is encrypted In paper production, wood containing high G monomer proportion is more resistant to chemical and physical treatment in lignin removal, and an increase in S/G ratio by genetic modification can improve pulping efficiency [32]. Dong J.L., Liang B.G., Jin Y.S., Zhang W.J., Wang T. Oral immunization with pBsVP6-transgenic alfalfa protects mice against rotavirus infection. Yu P. Application of advanced synchrotron radiation-based Fourier transform infrared (SR-FTIR) microspectroscopy to animal nutrition and feed science: A novel approach. Gene modification for improving alfalfa quality and stress tolerance could induce molecular structural changes on a molecular basis. More pronounced advances in alfalfa improvement have more recently made use of recombinant DNA technology to modulate expression of genes involved in forage nutritive value, biomass production, and stress tolerance [35,36]. Although reduction in lignin content and/or alteration of lignin composition in alfalfa by genetic modification increased forage digestibility [17,47,49], such genetic modifications were often associated with undesirable traits, such as dwarf phenotype, resulting in huge biomass loss and limiting the benefit of increased digestibility [18]. Available online: Jonker A., Gruber M.Y., McCaslin M., Wang Y., Coulman B., McKinnon J.J., Christensen D.A., Yu P. Nutrient composition and degradation profiles of anthocyanidin-accumulating. [65] expressed phytase and acid phosphatase genes in alfalfa to improve phosphorous utilization. These pleotropic effects could be the result of loss of lignin itself or other related effects, such as accumulation of harmful intermediates, activation of cell wall integrity pathways, or increased susceptibility to biotic and abiotic stresses [18]. [3], the growing area of alfalfa is approximate 32 million hectares worldwide. In the same study, downregulation of coumarate 3-hydroxylase (C3H) resulted in a 3-fold reduction of lignin content with enriched H lignin, while downregulating ferulate 5-hydroxylase (F5H) slightly increased G lignin and reduced S lignin. GM foods may also go through processing that concentrates harmful substances and makes them more easily absorbed by consumers. Antibiotic-resistant genes are routinely inserted into GMO organisms to assess the uptake of a target gene. Ray H., Yu M., Auser P., Blahut-Beatty L., McKersie B., Bowley S., Westcott N., Coulman B., Lloyd A., Gruber M.Y. For example, miR156 is a plant microRNA that has been characterized in many plant species [57]. The GMO alfalfa seeds have very good growth. We think the decision reached today is a reflection of our commitment to choice and trust.. The three most common traits found in GMO crops are: Resistance to insect damage. Tolerance to herbicides. I. [(accessed on 25 January 2017)]. The site is secure. It also details the environmental and economic costs of herbicide resistant weeds and increased herbicide use that would result from GM Roundup Ready alfalfa. Lignin impact on fiber degradation. Frothy bloat in ruminants: Cause, occurrence, and mitigation strategies. AK phosphorylates aspartate, producing the substrate for the synthesis of lysine, threonine and methionine from aspartate. Gou J.Y., Felippes F.F., Liu C.J., Weigel D., Wang J.W. Damiran D., Yu P. Structural makeup, biopolymer conformation, and biodegradation characteristics of a newly developed super genotype of oats (CDC SO-I versus conventional varieties): A novel approach. Compared with their non-transgenic parents, the crossed progenies accumulated more anthocyanins with an average of 197.4 g/mg DM, contained 3% less crude protein (CP) with 3% more carbohydrates (CHO), reduced the effective degradability and fermentation rate in the rumen, increased the nutrient availability to animals, and reduced foaming properties [7,13,43]. Vegetables not on this list, such as broccoli and carrots, are not approved in the United States to be . Non-browning potato bruises contain elevated levels of the amino acid tyramine, which can cause hypertension, headaches and visual disturbances in people who cannot metabolize it. However, there are only trace amounts of PAs in alfalfa, and they are restricted to the seed coat [13,14]. As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. The S/G ratio could be reduced without having an effect on total lignin content by silencing COMT to lower than 20% of wild type [46]. [30] and Jonker [13]. Another study found that people who ate GM soya already had genes from the soya present in their gut bacteria. A letter signed by 15 farm organizations was sent to Minister MacAulay on April 20, 2016, urging him to stop further sales by deregistering GM alfalfa varieties until a full economic assessment is done, and also to establish a protocol for testing alfalfa seed imported from the USA in light of documented contamination of non-GM seed there. by Allison Baker figures by Lillian Horin The Arctic apple is the juiciest newcomer to produce aisles. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (, alfalfa, proanthocyanidin and anthocyanins, lignin, genetic modification, transcription factors, molecular structure. Mandatory labeling has been proposed at state and federal levels but there has been little traction on compelling food producers to label GMO foods. In 2009, a group of scientists from corn-producing states went to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to challenge the long-standing industry restrictions on impartial research into GMOs. Canola. The initiative calling for the provincial environmental assessment was undertaken after we learned that, in spite of the Canada-wide opposition to GM alfalfa as expressed in our Day of Action (see below), the Canadian Food Inspection Agency registered one variety of GM alfalfa, WL 373HQ.RR, making it legal to sell the seed in Canada. Its clear that Vilsack caved to pressure from the biotech industry and Monsanto, he said. A moderate amount of PAs in forages, about 2%4% of dry matter (DM), can slow down protein degradation rate in the rumen, increase rumen escape protein, and improve animal productivity [12]. If it's introduced, GM alfalfa will ruin export markets for alfalfa products, contaminate family farms, make it more difficult for farmers to control weeds, and threaten the future of organic food and farming in Canada. Alfalfa is grown mostly to make hay fed to dairy cows and horses. Naringenin can then be hydroxylated to form 5 OH eriodictyol and eriodictyol, which along with naringenin, are hydroxylated and reduced into three forms of anthocyanidins, namely delphinidin, pelargonidin and cyanidin [25]. Verdier et al. To date, no genetically modified alfalfa varieties are registered with the Canadian Food Inspection Agency. Wang Y., Ren H., Pan H., Liu J., Zhang L. Enhanced tolerance and remediation to mixed contaminates of PCBs and 2,4-DCP by transgenic alfalfa plants expressing the 2,3-dihydroxybiphenyl-1,2-dioxygenase. In this article, we review two major obstacles facing alfalfa utilization, namely poor protein utilization and relatively high lignin content, and highlight genetic studies that were performed to overcome these drawbacks, as well as to introduce other improvements to alfalfa quality. Aung B., Gruber M.Y., Amyot L., Omari K., Bertrand A., Hannoufa A. MicroRNA156 as a promising tool for alfalfa improvement. These advantages could reduce the selection time in breeding cycle. Alfalfa. What Are the Causes and Effects of Land Pollution and How Can We Prevent It? If you search for information on GMOs being or producing carcinogenic substances on the leading search engines, all the leading academic publications suggest that GMO foods do not have an elevated risk of cancer. If its introduced, GM alfalfa will ruin export markets for alfalfa products, contaminate family farms, make it more difficult for farmers to control weeds, and threaten the future of organic food and farming in Canada. When FTIR spectroscopy was combined with microscopy and synchrotron radiation, a new analytical tool was created, which is known as synchrotron radiation-based Fourier transform IR microspectroscopy (SR-IMS) [82]. Xie D.Y., Sharma S.B., Wright E., Wang Z.Y., Dixon R.A. Metabolic engineering of proanthocyanidins through co-expression of anthocyanidin reductase and the PAP1 MYB transcription factor. Transgenic expression of rotavirus capsid protein (VP7) in alfalfa for edible vaccine. In the production of biofuel, a thermochemical pretreatment is required to eliminate or delocalize lignin prior to the enzymatic hydrolysis of polysaccharides into fermentable sugars [20]. Genetically modified soy, corn, and rice contain proteins that can sensitize the gastrointestinal tract, leading to the development of novel allergies that cause inflammation and malabsorption of food. Genetic engineering has always been presented as a solution that can benefit the whole of humanity, but the introduction of GMOs has demonstrated that this is a purely commercial endeavor, concentrating profits in the hands of a few. Accessibility Common GMO foods include corn, soybeans, potatoes, and papaya. Fortunately, farmers across the world are starting to challenge these companies legally and are getting significant public support for their demands for seed sovereignty for mankind rather than a select few. The Food and Water Watch report also found that alfalfa uses an average of 945 billion gallons of water annually, and that mega-dairies consume more than 142 million gallons per day to maintain . In part, because alfalfa tends to be seeded (on average) once every 7 years, HT alfalfa adoption rates have increased relatively slowly compared to other field crops, such as corn and soybeans, which are not perennials. Wang et al. These notable disadvantages of GMOs make it important to revisit the debate on their use. Understanding Low and High Risk What is a GMO? [96] evaluated the lignin profiles in alfalfa leaves and stems at different maturity stages using attenuated total reflectance (ATR)-FTIR spectroscopy, and found differences between leaves and stems, as leaf lignin mainly consisted of G lignin while stem lignin contained both G and S lignin. In 1996 transgenic soybeans that contained a Brazil nut protein were found to be extremely allergenic and had to be removed from further development. Interestingly, the red color induced by light/temperature stresses faded quickly after removing stresses in greenhouse condition, while in field condition it lasted months, thereby implying that natural light outdoors is sufficient in triggering stress-induced PAs accumulation [40]. Naringenin in this pathway can also be used to synthesize flavones and isoflavones following a series of reactions. Changes in lignin structure with maturation of alfalfa leaf and stem in relation to ruminants nutrition. If genetically modified (GM, also called genetically engineered or GE) alfalfa is released in Eastern Canada, it will have negative impacts on a wide range of farmers and farming systems, both conventional and organic. In the US and other countries around the globe, the advance of GMOs has been met with relatively little resistance from producers and consumers. Many scientists, environmentalists, health professionals, and farmers propose otherwise. We may earn an affiliate commission at no extra cost to you if you buy through a link on this page. It can grow into a large-sized crop and spread to acres. Halgerson J.L., Sheaffer C.C., Martin N.P., Peterson P.R., Weston S.J. GMO Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt)-producing corn is known to have immunotoxicological potential and has been shown in studies to sensitize mice and livestock to previously harmless foods. The first genetically modified food was a tomato, introduced in 1994. The next step was to alter genes by changing DNA sequences to produce different protein products. For GMO crops that are resistant to insect damage, farmers . The biosynthesis pathway of PAs and anthocyanins is shown in Figure 1. Organizations were invited to sign on to the joint letter to Minister MacAulay, and individuals were invited to express their concerns by email or to phone the Ministers Ottawa office at 613-995-9325. Such linkage between molecular structure and forage quality makes structural analysis a promising tool in forage breeding for quality selection. GMOs have been implicated in hormone disruption, 6. Good adaptability, high biomass yield, and high nutritive value make alfalfa one of the most widely cultivated forage crops around the world. [81] reported that high possessions of -sheet could reduce the degradability of protein, and an increase in -sheet/-helix ratio by heat process was associated with an increase in PC protein fraction, which is the undegradable protein in Cornell Net Carbohydrate and Protein System (CNCPS). GM foods have been identified as potential endocrine disruptors and implicated in reproductive defects in insects, fish, and animals, as well as subfertility in humans. Following the Day of Action, Forage Genetics International stated that it would not sell GM alfalfa in the spring of 2013. Vogel K.P., Jung H.J.G. The gene editing, insertion, and deletion undertaken to produce GMOs can inadvertently lead to the production of proteinaceous allergens. Though the prevalence of GMOs and GM foods is high in the US, many countries across the world do not want to introduce GMOs into their ecosystems and diets. As you will see, discourse on the benefit and safety of GMOs is heavily shaped and censored by the biotechnology industries that produce GMOs, stifling a free and fair debate on their use. Shenk J.S., Westerhaus M.O. The use and misuse of FTIR spectroscopy in the determination of protein structure. Baker M.J., Trevisan J., Bassan P., Bhargava R., Butler H.J., Dorling K.M., Fielden P.R., Fogarty S.W., Fullwood N.J., Heys K.A., et al. MYB58 and MYB63 are transcriptional activators of the lignin biosynthetic pathway during secondary cell wall formation in arabidopsis. Biomol. Understanding Low and High Risk A GMO, or genetically modified organism, is a plant, animal, microorganism or other organism whose genetic makeup has been modified in a laboratory using genetic engineering or transgenic technology. GMO Science What are High Risk Crop Inputs? Yu et al. Repeated blanket use of pesticides causes pests and weeds that survive applications to give rise to resistant species. They expressed concern that these GMO conglomerates were inhibiting public scientists from investigating GMOs for the public good, warning that lobbying and undue industry influence had made it impossible to independently analyze transgenic crops. Genetically modified crops are plants used in agriculture, the DNA of which has been modified using genetic engineering techniques. Based on these results, attempts are currently being made to co-express C1 and Lc genes in alfalfa to further boost the PAs and anthocyanins content in alfalfa [41]. Browning also contributes to food waste by causing unappealing bruising on perfectly edible apples. Gamage I.H., Jonker A., Christensen D.A., Yu P. Metabolic characteristics of proteins and biomolecular spectroscopic profiles in different batches of feedstock (wheat) and their co-products (wheat distillers dried grains with solubles) from the same bioethanol processing plant. To date, there are three common methods used to analyze molecular structures of feedstuffs: near infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS), Fourier transformed infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and synchrotron radiation-based IR microspectroscopy (SR-IMS). Markovi et al. Aerts R.J., Barry T.N., McNabb W.C. Polyphenols and agriculture: Beneficial effects of proanthocyanidins in forages. Bengera I., Norris K. Determination of moisture content in soybeans by direct spectrophotometry. This makes it even more important to give the disadvantages of GMOs serious consideration at every level of society. Expression of wheat NHX antiporter gene, TaNHX2, in alfalfa resulted in an increase in salt tolerance [67,68]. In addition, individual citizens also delivered letters and petitions to their MPs, while others sent emails, made phone calls and asked for meetings. Another drawback of alfalfa is its relatively high lignin content [15]. Farmers dont want or need Roundup Ready alfalfa. They launched an application under Ontarios Environmental Bill of Rights, the first ever request relating to the issue of GM crops. Seed giant Monsanto developed an alfalfa seed that's resistant to the weedkiller Roundup, which means alfalfa farmers can use the chemical on the plant, which saves time, labor and money on. This is because molecular structures of feedstuff are closely related to the nutritive value of forage for animals. Han H., Li Y., Zhou S. Overexpression of phytoene synthase gene from. Transformation of Lc-gene to alfalfa, aiming to enhance the accumulation of PAs and anthocyanins, decreased model-fitted -helix and -sheet and increased other protein structures [80]. About 1 percent of alfalfa is organic. This anti-bloat character is highly associated with their possession of proanthocyanidins (PAs), which are also known as condensed tannin [7,9,10]. Transgenic alfalfa plants expressing the sweetpotato orange gene exhibit enhanced abiotic stress tolerance. Brown M.E., Chang M.C. Though GMOs that are introduced for human and animal consumption have undergone toxicity studies, there are limitations to safety evaluations undertaken, which often fail to characterize the variability in toxin levels between GMOs of the same species and the long-term effects of bioaccumulation of substances they produce in the food chain. In addition, the rapid degradation of alfalfa protein can increase the viscosity of ruminal fluid, posing a risk of pasture bloat to animals [8]. Rallies in Ontario: Barrie, Belleville, Brantford, Goderich, Guelph, Hawkesbury, Kingston, Kitchener-Waterloo, London, Orangeville, Ottawa, Owen Sound, Port Colborne, Stratford, Toronto, Thunder Bay, Welland. GMOs may contribute to cancer development, 10. In humans, Indian cotton pickers have been affected by flu symptoms when handling Bt-producing cotton. Molecular regulation of seed and fruit set. Ferradini N., Iannacone R., Capomaccio S., Metelli A., Armentano N., Semeraro L., Cellini F., Veronesi F., Rosellini D. Assessment of heat shock protein 70 induction by heat in alfalfa varieties and constitutive overexpression in transgenic plants. [15] explored the effects of silencing TT8 and HB12 by RNAi on the chemical profile and carbohydrate structure in alfalfa. It is resistant to glyphosate herbicide and has the low lignin trait. Li X., Hannoufa A., Zhang Y., Yu P. Gene-silencing-induced changes in carbohydrate conformation in relation to bioenergy value and carbohydrate subfractions in modeled plant (, International Journal of Molecular Sciences, http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/, http://www5.statcan.gc.ca/cansim/pick-choisir?lang=eng&p2=33&id=0040213, http://feedstuffs.com/story-advancement-developing-reducedlignin-alfalfa-made-54-132931. In addition, the rats grew large hormone-driven tumors in their liver, kidney, and mammary tissue. Yu P., Nuez-Ortn W.G. Lignin consists mainly of three monolignols: hydroxyphenyl (H lignin), guaiacyl (G lignin), and syringyl (S lignin). In March 2016 the company, Forage Genetics International (FGI), announced its plans to sell a limited quantity of seed for its HarvXtra genetically modified alfalfa variety in Eastern Canada. Molecular Marker Systems in Plant Breeding and Crop Improvement. The GM seed monopoly has dampened non-GM breeding and limited the number of non-GM varieties available. In angiosperm species, including Medicago sativa (alfalfa), lignin consists of mainly G and S monomers with only traces of H monomer, while in gymnosperms lignin consists of a large proportion of G with low S lignin monomers [31]. It saves time, as well. For example, Gebril et al. 6 is resistant to herbicides, allowing farmers to spray the crops to protect them against destructive weeds that can reduce alfalfa production and lower the nutritional Plans M., Sim J., Casaas F., Sabat J. Near-infrared spectroscopy analysis of seed coats of common beans (. The suggestion that GMOs cause or contribute to the development of cancers is contentious. Kim J.B., Kim S.H., Roh K.H., Kim H.U., Lee K.R., Lee E.Y., Kim W.Y., Park J.H., Chung I.S. GMOs spearheaded the biotechnology revolution and have had a massive impact on our environment and diet. Gebril S., Seger M., Villanueva F.M., Ortega J.L., Bagga S., Sengupta-Gopalan C. Transgenic alfalfa (, Tong Z., Xie C., Ma L., Liu L., Jin Y., Dong J., Wang T. Co-expression of bacterial aspartate kinase and adenylylsulfate reductase genes substantially increases sulfur amino acid levels in transgenic alfalfa (. It belongs to the Fabaceae family that has long been used in traditional medicine to treat various health conditions. The concern is not only the enhanced allergenicity of these transgenic foods but also whether the presence of their allergens can be appropriately identified, labeled or traced when they enter the food chain. Wang Y., McAllister T.A., Acharya S. Condensed tannins in sainfoin: Composition, concentration, and effects on nutritive and feeding value of sainfoin forage. Genetic engineering is a contentious issue because of the invasive nature of this technology that irreparably alters the gene profile of an organism. This might be because HCT is involved in 3-hydroxylation by adding and removing a shikimate group, and 3-hydroxylation is a crucial step in S and G lignin synthesis (Figure 1). Many of the genetic modifications introduced to plants to reduce lignin content have resulted in dwarfed phenotypes, which have led to compromised biomass yield, limiting the benefits of reduced lignin [18]. Spectrochim. and transmitted securely. The letter was also written by Republican Senators Saxby Chambliss of Georgia and Pat Roberts of Kansas. Such gene modification could bring molecular structural changes in alfalfa that are detectable by advanced structural analytical techniques. By measuring the reflectance and absorption of infrared light, it is possible to not only explore the concentration and distribution of chemical components, but also image their secondary structural characteristics and molecular structure ratios.
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